The Monk(s) Who Made Shaolin !

I recently finished Meir Shahar's book “The Shaolin Monastery: History, Religion, and the Chinese Martial Arts.” I want to pick out a few passages from my notes especially about Indian connection.

 “Shaolin’s history spans fifteen hundred years. The monastery was founded during the last decade of the fifth century by an Indian-born monk, who is referred to in the Chinese sources as Batuo, or Fotuo.” (p9)

  

 “Religions tend to appropriate each other’s sacred places (Jerusalem is one example). Thus, when Buddhist missionaries arrived in China in the first centuries CE, they quickly perceived the religious potential of Mt. Song. As early as the third century a Buddhist monastery was established on the mountain, which by the early sixth century featured no fewer than six Buddhist temples. The mountain’s “Buddhist conquest” (as Bernard Faure has termed it) involved the creation of a new mythology, which tied the Chinese peak to the Indian-born faith. It centered on the legendary founder of the Chan (Japanese: Zen) School: Bodhidharma.)” (p12)

“The eighth century witnessed the flowering of a new school of Chinese Buddhism, which as indicated by its name stressed the significance of meditation (chan in Chinese; dhyâna in Sanskrit).” (p12)

“Bodhidharma has been the subject of intense scholarly research. Chinese, Japanese, and Western scholars usually accept the historicity of this Indian (or, according to another version, Persian) missionary, who arrived in China around 480 and propagated the Dharma in the Luoyang region until ca. 520.” (p13)

“Bodhidharma’s association with Shaolin, which is traceable in canonical scriptures, is equally attested to by archaeological evidence at the temple itself. Shaolin steles reveal the gradual process by which the Indian saint had been linked to the Chinese temple. A stele inscription dated 728 is the earliest to have Bodhidharma residing on Mt. Song, and another, dated 798, already has Huike performing the dramatic gesture of severing his arm.” (p14)

“Li Shimin did issue a series of unprecedented anti-Buddhist laws. In 629 he ordered the execution of illegally ordained monks, in 631 he forbade monks and nuns from receiving the homage of their parents, and in 637 he decreed that Daoist priests be given precedence over Buddhist monks in all state ceremonies. In his later years, the emperor did befriend one Buddhist monk, the renowned pilgrim Xuanzang (596–664). However, he sought Xuanzang’s counsel primarily on foreign affairs rather than on spiritual matters. During his celebrated journey to India, Xuanzang gained an in-depth knowledge of western lands, for which reason the emperor implored him (unsuccessfully) to join his administration.” (p30)

“It is striking that a religion as intent on peace as Buddhism would arrive in China equipped with an entire gallery of martial gods. Buddhist iconography reveals to us an unexpectedly violent aspect of the faith. The Buddha is usually flanked by heavily armed, ferocious-looking deities who trample demons underfoot.61 Vajrapâÿi (Chinese: Jin’gang (shen)) belongs to this category of divine warriors. As indicated by his name, his weapon is the mythic vajra, or thunderbolt (jin’gang in Chinese). By the time it was incorporated into the Buddhist arsenal, the magic instrument had enjoyed a venerable history. The Hindu god Indra had employed the vajra to vanquish the cosmic dragon Vrtra.” (p37)

“In 1735 the Yongzheng emperor approved an ambitious restoration plan for the monastery, which amounted to nine thousand silver taels. Finally, in 1750, the Qianlong emperor (r. 1736–1795) capped the imperial honors, personally visiting the temple and staying there overnight. The sovereign penned four poems for the occasion, celebrating the monastery’s scenery and the religious lore of its Indian patriarch Bodhidharma.” (p190)

Communist Paradise of North Korea

“Nothing to Envy: Ordinary Lives in North Korea” is a book by Barbara Demick. She follows the lives of six North Korean citizens over fifteen years.

Some excerpts from the book that captures the stark realities of life inside one of the world's most feared dictatorships and last Stalinist paradise on earth.

About the famous satellite picture.

“IF YOU LOOK AT SATELLITE PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE FAR EAST by night, you’ll see a large splotch curiously lacking in light. This area of darkness is the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. Next to this mysterious black hole, South Korea, Japan, and now China fairly gleam with prosperity. 

Even from hundreds of miles above, the billboards, the headlights and streetlights, the neon of the fast-food chains appear as tiny white dots signifying people going about their business as twenty-first-century energy consumers. Then, in the middle of it all, an expanse of blackness nearly as large as England. It is baffling how a nation of 23 million people can appear as vacant as the oceans. NorthKorea is simply a blank…………………………North Korea faded to black in the early 1990s. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, which had propped up its old Communist ally with cheap fuel oil, North Korea’s creakily inefficient economy collapsed. Power stations rusted into ruin. The lights went out. 

Hungry people scaled utility poles to pilfer bits of copper wire to swap for food. When the sun drops low in the sky, the landscape fades to gray and the squat little houses are swallowed up by the night. Entire villages vanish into the dusk. Even in parts of the showcase capital of Pyongyang, you can stroll down the middle of a main street at night without being able to see the buildings on either side. 

When outsiders stare into the void that is today’s North Korea, they think of remote villages of Africa or Southeast Asia where the civilizing hand of electricity has not yet reached. But North Korea is not an undeveloped country; it is a country that has fallen out of the developed world. You can see the evidence of what once was and what has been lost dangling overhead alongside any major North Korean road—the skeletal wires of the rusted electrical grid that once covered the entire country."

About Kim Il-sung

“To a certain extent, all dictatorships are alike. From Stalin’s Soviet Union to Mao’s China, from Ceauşescu’s Romania to Saddam Hussein’s Iraq, all these regimes had the same trappings: the statues looming over every town square, the portraits hung in every office, the wristwatches with the dictator’s face on the dial. But Kim Il-sung took the cult of personality to a new level. What distinguished him in the rogues’ gallery of twentieth-century dictators was his ability to harness the power of faith. Kim Il-sung understood the power of religion.

His maternal uncle was a Protestant minister back in the pre-Communist days when Pyongyang had such a vibrant Christian community that it was called the “Jerusalem of the East.” Once in power, Kim Il-sung closed the churches, banned the Bible, deported believers to the hinterlands, and appropriated Christian imagery and dogma for the purpose of self-promotion. Broadcasters would speak of Kim Il-sung or Kim Jong-il breathlessly, in the manner of Pentecostal preachers. 

North Korean newspapers carried tales of supernatural phenomena. Stormy seas were said to be calmed when sailors clinging to a sinking ship sang songs in praise of Kim Il-sung. When Kim Jong-il went to the DMZ, a mysterious fog descended to protect him from lurking South Korean snipers.

North Korea invites parody. We laugh at the excesses of the propaganda and the gullibility of the people. But consider that their indoctrination began in infancy, during the fourteen-hour days spent in factory day-care centers; that for the subsequent fifty  years, every song, lm, newspaper article, and billboard was designed to deify Kim Il-sung; that the country was hermetically sealed to keep out anything that might cast doubt on Kim Il-sung’s divinity. Who could possibly resist?

Icon of Secularism- Ranjit Singh

Cardinal rules of discourse on Indian secularism:

-       Icons of secularism are:  Ashoka, Akbar, Nehru & dynasty ( just 3 in documented history of  2,300 years)

-       Anyone who parrots these names can be accommodated in this exclusive club

-       Anyone who can abuse Hinduism can also get this coveted membership

-       Indian history does not have any other icons of secularism especially if he happens to profess Hinduism, Sikhism etc.

Check this article which says- “The Indian analogue of B, or diversity model, draws on a tradition of thought and sensibility which goes far back in history, to Akbar and Ashoka. This has had an impact on our attempt to define our diversity model.”

Or in the words of Romila Thapar- “This is not of course the same as what is sometimes described as the Indian definition of secularism, namely, the co-existence of all religions. Rulers in the past that supported this idea, such as the two who are always quoted — Ashoka and Akbar are spoken of as providing a kind of prelude to secularism.”

This has done great injustice to heroes of our history who are real seculars in their own way. We look at life of Sher-e-Punjab Ranjit Singh. His empire was made of Punjab (both Indian and Pakistani side), Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh.

Following are some facts about Ranjit Singh as mentioned in “Empire of the Sikhs The Life and Times of Maharaja Ranjit Singh” by Patwant Singh.

-       1. He made Persian the official language of the Lahore Durbar. Although he did not know it at this age – the only other language he knew besides his own was Gurmukhi – he was as attracted to Persian as he was to Urdu, Kashmiri, Sindhi and many other regional languages

-      2. Ranjit Singh made a far-sighted move at the very outset of his reign. He ensured that the religious and social festivals a multicultural society like India observes throughout the year should be celebrated by people of all beliefs. He was convinced that this would provide the necessary impetus to the secularism to which the Sikhs subscribed. And so he made it a rule that his senior ministers, governors and eminent citizens, including himself, should try to attend as many of them as they could

-       3. His aim of creating a spirit of communal harmony was convincingly conveyed by the pomp and gaiety that attended Muslim religious days. Ranjit Singh ‘celebrated the Muslim festivals of Id with the same enthusiasm as he showed for Holi and Dussehra

-       4. There were no forced conversions in his reign, no communal riots, no language tensions, no second-class citizens. Any talented man could come to the court and demand his due

-       5. Christmas was also joyfully celebrated, and Ranjit Singh’s Lahore Durbar would send big hampers of fruits, sweets, wine and other presents to Europeans living in the Sikh kingdom

-       6. Muslim religious laws would be allowed to cover Muslims, and Qazis (judges ruling in accordance with Sharia, the Islamic religious law) would preside over their courts. Nizam-ud-Din was made the head Qazi of Lahore. Nor was the role of muftis (Muslim scholars who interpret the Sharia) overlooked.

-      7.  It was also decreed that mosques would continue to be supported by the state. In acknowledgement of the fact that Muslims were in a majority in the capital city of Lahore, he appointed Imam Baksh as its chief of police, who in turn was given a free hand to designate persons of his choice to senior positions in the force.

-       8. The overarching authority in religious matters relating to Muslims as a whole was vested in Nizam-ud-Din who had the final say in religious disputes among members of his faith. He in turn was advised by Mufti Mohammed Shah and Mufti Sa’dullah Chishti

-      9. In a later cabinet, in which Hindus, Muslims and Dogras (hill Rajputs from the Jammu area) predominated, the prime minister’s portfolio was given to a Hindu Dogra, Dhian Singh, and three of the most important portfolios to Muslims: Fakir Azizuddin was foreign minister, Fakir Nuruddin home minister and Fakir Imamuddin custodian of the treasury at Amritsar

-       10. Even Akbar who was the most liberal of the Mughal Emperors, who thought so much of expedient considerations, did not go as far as Ranjit Singh did. Whereas Ranjit Singh gave the highest positions, such as prime ministership, foreign ministership, etc., to members of other communities, Akbar could not go beyond associating one or two non-Muslim ministers with his court which thus predominantly remained Muslim in character and composition

-       11. His coinage reflected his secularism. The script was in Persian, the legend was of the Sikh faith, the dates followed the Hindu calendar established by King Vikramaditya, the Vikramditya Samvat, in which VS year 57 corresponds to AD 1 

One story from “Ranjit Singh: Maharajah Of The Punjab” by Khushwant Singh-

“a calligraphist who had spent many years making a copy of the Koran and had failed to get any of the Muslim princes of Hindustan to give him an adequate price for his labours turned up at Lahore to try and sell it to the Foreign Minister, Fakeer Azizuddin. The Fakeer praised the work but expressed his inability to pay for it. The argument was overheard by Ranjit Singh who summoned the calligraphist to his presence. The Maharajah respectfully pressed the holy hook against his forehead and then scrutinized the writing with his single eye. It was impressed with the excellence of the work and bought the Koran for his private collection. Sometime later Fakeer Azizuddin asked him why he had paid such a high price for a book for which he, as a Sikh, would have no use. Ranjit Singh replied: 'God intended me to look upon all religions with one eye; that is why he took away the light from the other.’

The story explains how Ranjit Singh was able to unite Punjabi Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs and create the one and only independent kingdom in the history of the Punjab.

Here is a Ted Talk given by Mr Fakir Syed. He comes from a distinguished family from the City of Lahore. His ancestors were members of the Lahore Darbar of Maharajah Ranjit Singh.

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yWxDhT3ybUs

The Indian War of Independence 1857, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar

“The Indian War of Independence1857” is a history of the 1857 war of freedom by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar. The book was published in 1909 to commemorate 50th anniversary of the 1857 war of freedom. It was the first such account of 1857 war of freedom.

It was written originally in Marathi. The manuscript developed out of a shorter essay Savarkar had written in 1907, printed in India in the newspaper Vihari. It could not be published in India for obvious reasons. The British Government had in its possession only one chapter (Swadharma and Swaraj-part 1, chapter 1) and inferred the other chapters to be of similar seditious nature. 

Director of Criminal Intelligence C.J. Stevenson-Moore said, “Seditious literature is no less deleterious than cocaine but the existing restrictions to its consumption are very insufficient.”

It was translated later on by a well-known revolutionary of Tamilnadu. V.V.S Aiyar. He was with Savarkar at India house in London. Finally, this work was published in Holland in 1909. Madam Bhikaji Cama got it published it in Netherlands, France and Germany. It was later smuggled into India and very soon became an essential reading for Indian nationalists.

The second edition of this book was published by Lala Hardayal on behalf of the Gadar Party in America, the third edition was published by Sardar Bhagat Singh, while the fourth edition was published by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose in the Far East.

This book was translated ino Urdu, Hindi, Punjabi and Tamil (the Tamil translation almost becoming mandatory reading for soldiers of Subhas Chandra Bose's Indian National Army-a majority of who were Tamilians from Southeast Asia).

Further, one edition was published secretly in India after the end of World War II. The original Marathi manuscript was kept in the safe custody of Madame Cama in Paris. This manuscript was handed over to Dr. Coutinho of the Abhinav Bharat when Paris was in turmoil during World War I. Dr. Coutinho preserved it like a holy scripture for nearly 40 years. After India became independent, he returned it to Ramlal Vajpeyee and Dr. Moonje who in turn gave it back to Savarkar. The ban on this book was finally lifted by the Congress Government of Bombay in May 1946.

From Censorship: A World Encyclopedia- “The book questioned the official version of the history of the mutiny, and confirmed the  Author’s firm belief in revolutionary methods. The British censors considered the work an attempt to foment a second war of independence and the manuscript was therefore banned in June 1907”

British banned a manuscript even before it was published!!

Battle of Salher- Prelude to Indian Reconquista

This battle of Salher is considered to be one of the bloodiest and significant in Indian history. It is one of the battles where an Indian Hindu army defeated a Mughal one in an open battlefield conflict. Bijapuris have already acknowledged Shivaji’s supremacy. After this battle, even Mughals became defensive.

Salher is the highest fort in the Sahyadri range of Maharashtra. Chhatrapati Shivaji wanted to capture of Salher fort as this could provide easy access to Gujarat.

Shivaji invested fort of Salher in January 1672. He personally scaled the fortress with a rope ladder with 20,000 men, surrounded the place and captured it. The Mughal commandant of the fortress named Fatullah Khan perished while fighting.  Imperialists tried to recapture the fort.This attempt at recapture led to the bloody Battle of Salher.

Aurangzeb sent Ikhlaas Khan and Bahlol Khan with a cavalry of 20,000 horses to attack Salher. Ikhlaas Khan then laid siege of Salher Fort. Shivaji sent two of his military officers- Sardar Moropant Pingle (Peshwa or First Minister) and Sardar Prataprao Gujar (Senapati or Army Chief) to fight the besieged Salher fort in 1672.  As planned, both Prataprao and Moropant rode to Salher from both sides and a fierce battle ensued. 

The Mughals possessed heavy cavalry and artillery guns transported on the back of elephants and camels. Shivaji’s light cavalry effectively held and broke Mughal lines.

The imperial Mughal armies were completely routed and the Marathas gave them a crushing defeat. Shivaji’s troops captured 6,000 horses, 6,000 camels, 150 elephants, heavy gold ornaments, gold coins, expensive carpets and expensive cloth from the enemy troops.The Marathas took two officers of the Mughals as prisoners of war (POW). They were Ikhlas Khan and Bahlol Khan.

This defeat created much consternation in Delhi court. It was now established firmly that Marathas could win open-field battles and would not shy away from challenges of this nature. For Aurangzeb, the "Mountain Rat" had finally come of age. Surendranath Sen captured the state of Aurangzeb in Siva Chhatrapati Vol.i- 

-The Badshah at Delhi felt much distressed on learning this news. For three days he did not come out. For three days, he did not come to the Hall of Public Audience. He said, “It seems God has taken away the Badshahi from the Musalmans (and) conferred it on Shivaji”

Fall of Ghazi Saiyyed Salar Masud

Ghazi Saiyyed Salar Masud was a Ghaznavid army general and the nephew of Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi. He invaded India around 1031-33 AD. Probably he accompanied his uncle in the Ghaznavid raids on the Hindu temple at Somnath as a child. 

At the age of 16, he invaded India to propagate Islam. He captured Multan, Delhi, and Meerut with little resistance etc.  When he reached Delhi fresh reinforcements from Ghazni helped him in defeating Mahipal Tomar, the then ruler of Delhi. The kings of Kannauj welcome him. He dispatched separate armed contingents to capture Bahraich and Benares.

The local rulers, including the Raja of Bahraich (close to the Nepal boundary), formed an alliance against his army. To defeat these forces, Salar Masud himself arrived in Bahraich, in 1033 AD. Salar Masud had some initial successes until the arrival of Suhaldev. Suhaldev's army defeated Salar Masud, and masud was killed in ensuing battle. No prisoner of war was taken, no mercy was shown. All soldiers of Masud’s army were annihilated. The place, where their bodies were buried is known as Ganj-e-Shahidan, the colony of martyrs.

With the passage of time Masud’s grave has taken on a holy aura. It is now a Sufi Saint’s mazar  (shrine). People started coming here to seek mannat, the wishes they want to realise with the blessings of Sufi Saint Masud!

Both Hindus and Muslims visitors are oblivious of the historical events took place here centuries ago. For them this is merely a place, where they can seek mannat and hope to see them realised. Not many know who is buried there and with was intention he came to that area centuries ago. As usual, Muslim writers passed over this defeat of famous Ghaznavids. It broke their aura of Islamic invincibility, also the image of Hindu pusillanimity

.

This might have instilled new confidence in Hindus. Mahipal Tomar would later attack and got back Hansi and Thanesar (then called Sthaneshwar) from Madud; grandson of Md. Ghazni. Chauhan rulers also recorded their fight and victory against Ghaznavids.

This victory is not given its due in Indian historical narrative. This does not fit into natural narrative peddled by leftist’s historians that Hindus can’t fight and struggle.

Following is the version of Andre Wink from Al-Hind The Making of the Indo-Islamic World

“In 1030-31, a significant new initiative was the first invasion of Awadh under Sayyid Salar Mas'ud Ghazl, a nephew of Mahmud, who had been born in 1015. From a military point of view, it was a complete failure, and hardly any of the invaders returned alive. Nothing indicates, in other words, that Sayyid Salar's conquest was in any way permanent. An account of it is given in an historical romance written by a Sufi, 'Abd ar-Rahman Chishn, during the reign of the Mughal emperor jahangir, entitled Mir'at-i-Mas'ildl. This work is said by its author to have been mainly based on a book called the Tawarikh-i-Mahmildl, written by Muhammad Ghaznawl, a servant of Amlr Sabuktigln and one of the followers of Sayyid Salar who related events of which he had personal knowledge. There are also numerous tombs, scattered all over the northern districts of Awadh, which are said to cover the remains of martyrs of Sayyid  Salar's army………………….. Bahraich was probably reached in 1033, and Sayyid Salar appears to have been able to repeatedly defeat the local rais on the banks of the river Kosala (probably the Kauriala), until reinforcements arrived in the Hindu camp and the 'prince of martyrs' fell with virtually all his followers”

We have the capacity to venerate an invader as a saint, how many even know Suheldev?

The Jat Uprising

The Jat uprising of 1669 AD was not an isolated event; it is one of the many rebellions across India against Mughal rule.

Kalika Ranjan Qanungo  wrote in History of Jats- “his (Aurangzeb) fault lay in his failure: he carried to his grave his unfulfilled dream of Islamic India…However by this open enmity, Aurangzeb unknowingly revived Hindu nationalism….From far off Maharashtra came the pulsation of a new life which moved northwards stirring the paralyzed limb of Society. In the Punjab, persecution turned a humble sect of sentimental devotees into ferocious warriors…..The brave Durgadas led the way and the Rathor blades were unsheathed for the defense of liberty and religion………………………..In 1669 another sturdy race, the Jats living almost under the very shadow of the imperial capital rose in revolt. This was but one flare of the mighty conflagration”

Misrule and oppression of Jat peasants of Agra and Mathura area, destruction of temple in Mathura drove Jats to unite under banner of Gokula. One faujdar of Mathura, Murhid Kuli khan was even well-known for abducting Hindu women.

Jats under leadership of Gokula (Zamindar of Tilpat) fought Mathura governor Abdun nabi and killed him. Gokula mustered 20,000 men and fought an army sent by Aurangzeb. Ultimately Jats were defeated before disciplined army and artillery of Mughals. Mughals lost 4000 men and won a costly victory. Gokula was captured; his limbs were hacked off one by one in Agra police office. His sacrifice did not go in vain; it watered the newly-sprouted seedling of liberty in the heart of the Jats. He was not alone in this sacrifice for freedom as Guru Tegh Bahadur, Sambhaji were also faced same fate in their struggle for freedom.

Rajaram assumed leadership of resistance around 1686 AD. He organized disorderly tribesman into a regular army, built regiments, equipped them with fire arms, taught them to obey their captains, built a series of small forts protected from artillery by mud wall. Rajaram soon controlled all roads and suburb of Agra, virtually besieging Agra governor Safi Khan in Agra. Renowned turani warrior Aghar Khan was looted and killed during a skirmish near Dholpur. After failure of general Zafar Jang in subduing Jats, Aurangzeb ordered his son Azam to take command. Bidar Bakht was given command around end of 1687 AD.

Rajaram plundered Akbar’s tomb and damaged the building. He was killed in July 1687 by a sniper shot during a battle between two Rajput groups. Rajaram was supporting a group which was opposed by Mughal supported group.

Raja Singh, father of Rajaram assumed leadership. Mughals with help of their Rajput allies breached the wall of Sinsani (Jat headquarters)in January 1690. This was also a costly victory. There was a lull in Jat activities till Churman, younger brother of Rajaram assumed leadership role.

Churman was opportunistic and a master organizer. He served many Muslim masters but was faithful to nobody. He built the legendary Bharatpur Fort. His army grew to 14,000 men within short span. He recovered Sinsani from Mughals in 1704 but lost in 1705 again. He remained faithful to Bahadur shah and won Mansab from him. He kept on increasing his wealth and army, kept building forts. He was appointed to the charge of the royal highway from neighborhood of Delhi to the crossing on Chambal.

In the words of Kalika Ranjan Qanungo  “ A wolf was left to watch over the flock, thereby loot was only legalized and made more methodical”. The emperor and his courtiers burned in with rage, but no one was willing to undertake the task of punishing the rebel.  

After Churman, Badan singh became ruler of Jats with help of Rajputs of Jaipur.  He is the founder of ruling house of Bharatpur. His son Surajmal was the best ruler of this state. More about Surajmal and achievements of Bharatput state in next part.

The first emperor of India - Chandragupta Maurya the Great

“The most effective way to destroy people is to deny and obliterate their own understanding of their history.” ― George Orwell

Qin Shi Huang was the first emperor of a unified China. Qin conquered all of the other Warring States and unified all of China in 221 BC. He assumed the title “emperor” for the first time in China. He also built new walls to connect the remaining fortifications along the empire's northern frontier.

This may be common knowledge unlike Chandragupta Maurya who is seldom remembered in the same manner. Chandragupta’s unification of India (except some parts of South India and Kalinga) preceded Qin by almost a century.  His efforts would start a tradition empire building in the sub-continent that would continue till late 18^th century. Most of these empires would rise to get the country rid of foreign occupation.

Chandragupta was taken to Taxila by Chanakya and was trained in all essential skills to be an emperor. This tradition of a disciple inspired by his Guru to resist foreign invasion & occupation would continue to the days of Guru Govind Singh who inspired Banda bahadur to fight against Mughuls in Punjab.  

In the words of Radhakumud Mookerji  “Thus the task of Chandragupta was carefully to mobilize the military resources of the country and specially its morale, and to awaken its spirit of resistance, depressed by Alexander’s campaigns, in a national struggle for freedom.” This tradition of national struggle also was to continue for next  2000 years till British were ousted from Indian soil in 1947. Chanakya and Chandragupta recruited people from different places especially from republican people of Punjab who fought Alexander to last man.

In the meanwhile, the position of Greeks in Punjab was growing difficult. The Assakenoi (Aśvakas) killed the Greek satrap Nicanor followed by assassination of Phillipus in 325BC.

Justin wrote “India after the death of Alexander, had shaken off the yoke of servitude and put his governors to death. The author of this liberation was Sandrocotts”.

Chandragupta began war of liberation around 323 BC and by 317 BC accomplished his mission. He then started his struggle against Nanda Empire in mainland India. Astute diplomacy of Chanakya and military skills of Chandragupta became successful in uniting whole country under Maurya rule.

Seleucus I Nicator who succeeded Alexander in the eastern part of his empire moved towards India to recover the lost possessions of Alexander around 305 BC. He had to fight a united India this time led and organized by an able leader unlike Alexander who fought a divided India split up into multitude of kingdoms. Details are missing in both Greek and Indian sources about this war, though results were clearly in favor of Chandragupta. 

In the words of Meredith L. Runion, "In an effort to gain more power and influence over the region, Seleucus pushed the boundaries of his empire as far as the Indus River in India, and it was here in 305 b.c.e. that the Mauryan dynasty of India engaged in a crucial conflict with the Seleucids. After facing a completely devastating battle and almost utter defeat, Seleucus reached an agreement with Chandragupta Maurya, the king of the Mauryan tribe in India."

Seleucus had to cede territories in present day Afghanistan. Seleucus appears to have fared poorly, having ceded large territories west of the Indus to Chandragupta. Chandragupta presented 500 elephants in return, a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. Chandragupta accepted a daughter of Seleucus in marriage. Greek writers naturally passed over this defeat of Greek king by an Indian ruler. 

Chandragupta abdicated his throne in favor of his son Bindusara, embraced Jainism, and followed Bhadrabahu to South India. He is said to have ended his life at Shravanabelagola (in present-day Karnataka) through Sallekhana.

Thus was created the first centralized Indian state. Empire over which Ashoka ruled was mostly the creation of his grandfather Chandragupta. He is not the great military leader as suggested in current history textbooks.

Chandragupta’s story has many lessons for India in the past and continues to be relevant in this age. Unified India, requirement of a central state, spirit of resistance and fight, right military leadership and doctrine, right intellectual guidance (provided by Chanakya) are some the positives of Chandragupta story.

Prof K A Nilakanta Sastri wrote in this context- “It showed clearly that an emotional love of independence was no match to the disciplined strength of a determined conqueror though we should not fail to note that in this instance (Alexander’s conquest of North-west India) the states of North-western India had to contend against one of the greatest generals of world. It left the warrior tribes of the Indus river system weakened and broken, and thus paved the way for the easy extension of Mauryan rule”.